Falconry in Late Antiquity - An overview

The winding road to its arrival in Europe

My love of Falconry has been deep-rooted from a young age. I spent hundreds of hours with my parents sipping tomato soup from a flask, in old creaky hides watching birds with a telescope and filling in my bird log - no matter what the weather.

Growing up I had many occasions where I crossed paths with birds of prey. I remember the moments where you were selected to wear a glove and watch as the hawk flew toward you, or just the countless times we visited centres or displays. When I was older I began to go on courses, and each time I was buzzing more. I was always enthralled, but I did not know it would mean I
would choose to go down this path myself.

After years of preperation I am now beginning my own journey (yes you heard me "a journey"!) with my own birds. I hope to throw all my experience and joy of historical reconstruction and falconry together, thus creating an interesting and exciting experience for members of the public. The birds will travel with Comitatus and soon become accustomed to horses, history and "funny clothes".



The idea of this document is really to provide an overview of Falconry and its relevance to the Roman era. I am aiming to give an introduction on various aspects of evidence and specualation that help create a picture of falconry at this time.

Two traditional terms are used to describe a person involved in falconry: a falconer flies a falcon; an austringer flies a hawk. But over time it has become acceptable that both "falconer" and "falconry" now apply to the use of all trained birds of prey to catch game.

Beginnings

The origins of falconry are debatable but it seems like that it began in Asia. It is agreed that falconry seemed well established in the Middle and Far East by 2000 BC. The earliest artistic evidence comes from Turkey. Several carvings from around 1500 BC show a large bird on the fist of a human figure. Grasped in the same fist is the figure of a hare (which we could presume is the quarry) held its back legs.

Sometime later, in Northern Iraq, a bas-relief depicting a small bird of prey on the wrist of a man, has been found. This has been dated to the period of King Sargon II (722-705 BC). Interestingly this carving seems to show jesses tied to the bird’s feet and passing between the thumb and forefinger of the falconer. If this is so, it might indicate that falconry (and its paraphernalia) was well developed by the eighth century BC in the Middle East.

Through trade routes and also contact with other cultures, Falconry makes its way into Europe. The Huns (around 400AD) may well have been the first to bring in the art of Falconry in to Europe when they invaded from the East. Although most Romans see the practice of Falconry as barbaric some upper class Romans took on the sport in Britain.

Although there does not seem to be very much literary reference to falconry what does exist is both interesting and enlightening.

Aristotle lists Accipiter in his ‘History of Animals’. The word Accipiter, (meaning to grasp or take) which is commonly identified with the goshawk but also others predator birds including sparrowhawks.
Accipiter is the same term eventually used by Linnaeus (in his Systema naturae) for the genus. There are around fifty species in the Accipiter genus, mostly goshawks.

A few hundread years on Gaius Plinius Secundus “Pliny” (77AD) writes:
In that part of Thrace which lies above Amphipolis, men and hawks go in pursuit of prey as it were in a sort of partnership, for while the men drive the birds from the woods and reedbeds the hawks bring them down as they fly; and after they have taken the game the fowlers share it with them.

In the Late Roman period there is a reference in Eucharisticos (c 459AD) by Paulinus of Pella. He is describing his wish in his teenage years to possess a swift hound and handsome hawk (Epstein 1942-3, 504)
qua ratione auctus noster quoque crevit et error, firmatus facile ad iuvenalia vota sequenda, ut mihi pulcher equus falerisque ornatior esset, strator procerus, velox canis et speciosus accipiter...
(Wherefore, as my growth, so my waywardness increased, readily settling down to the pursuit of youthful desires — as to have a fine horse bedecked with special trappings, a tall groom, a swift hound, a shapely hawk...)

Sidonius Apollinaris also refers to hawking in his letter of the 470s to Ecdicius:
omitto quod hic primum tibi pila pyrgus, accipiter canis, equus arcus ludo fuere
(I will not remind you that here you first played ball and cast the dice, here you first knew sport with hawk and hound, with horse and bow.) (Dalton 1915 Book III:3)

and to Industrius:
illa leviora, quod ipse, quem loquimur, in equis canibus accipitribus instituendis spectandis circumferendis nulli secundus
(It is of less moment that the man of whom we speak is without a rival in training a horse, judging a dog, or in bearing hawk afield) (Book IV:9)

Pliny seems to regard the practice as outlandish, or at least perplexing. This may help explain how both the Greeks and the Romans might have felt about falconry. His reference also suggests it reached Europe by way of the Middle East, being practices by Thracians, Scythians and Sarmatians.

Bone Finds

Bone finds also help indicate where and when birds may have existed in various contexts. Below are some examples.




In a Roman town in South East Bulgaria bones of a Saker falcon were found. Bones of owls were also found. Owls are well known for their use as decoy birds in hunting.




In Chelmsford in Essex an excavation revealed bird bone finds in a well on the site of a 3rd/4th century Roman farmhouse at Boreham. The farmhouse itself revealed luxurious living such as a covered walkway and a bathhouse. There is evidence of imported Mediterranean foods such as olives and pine kernels. In a the bottom of the farm’s well amongst other waterlogged items such as the imported food remains, as well as local foods such as cherries, plums and walnuts, fish, goose, duck, woodcock, hare and oyster it also contained bones of Sparrowhawks and thrushes. The thrush is one of the sparrowhawk’s natural prey. This suggests possible evidence of hawking, which would be a feasible pastime for the rich owner of a farmhouse such as this.



In 'The Natural History of Pompeii' Jashemski & Meyer list Roman evidence for various birds of prey, including fifty Northern goshawk (A. gentilis) bones found at Carminiello near Naples from the 5th to 7th centuries and suggest the goshawk might have been flown for hunting.






Remains of hunting birds have been found in cremations as well as in Vendal and Valsgarde boat burials dating from the late 5th century onward. In particular, the bones of goshawks, but also peregrine and sparrowhawks. Bones of owls were also found at these sites. It is know that owls may have been used as decoys in hunting, which would back up the purpose of the hawks.



Although this is fairly stable evidence of the appearance of birds in the above areas, you still have to bear in mind whether the hawks found were buried purposely as part of the burial, or whether they were simply native birds that happened to die on the same spot at a similar time.

Mosaics

Another wonderful area to look at are mosaics. It is always well to remember with any art that often the artist's interpretation of a creature may be misunderstood. Indeed in somecases artists may have never seen what they were recreating.

Mosaic in the Villa Romana de Casale, Sicily
Background info on where the mosaic is (taken from the Villa’s website)
“The Villa del Casale, near Piazza Armerina is perhaps the finest and most extensive display of mosaics in the Roman world. Although the owner of the villa is not known for certain, he must have been someone of great wealth and importance. A leading theory is that this was the country retreat of Maximianus Herculeus, who was Emperor of the western part of the Roman Empire between 285 and 305 AD. It may have been a hunting lodge and somewhere to entertain important guests – a kind of late-Roman Camp David. The mosaics include a 60-metre-long hunting scene, the famous ten "bikini girls" and many classical, whimsical, sporting and geometrical examples. They served to both amuse the host (for example in the private areas of the villa) and impress guests. The style is influenced by North African art, both in composition and the choice of colourful polychrome materials. The bright-coloured marble and other stones would have been imported specially for this luxurious display.”

- The small hunt room mosaic
So let's take a look at the mosaic. Firstly notice the man in yellow tunic carrying a bird. It perches on his shoulder. The size and colouring of the bird suggests something like a sparrowhawk, although it really could be anything. The man in the green tunic also carries a bird. His bird seems to be sat up as if on the man’s wrist/hand. The bird does not seem to dead as it would be more curved in a limp manner if this was so. The bird definitely has shape and the angle of the man’s arm suggests that he supporting the bird by his wrist, much like the way a modern day falconer would.

Both men are looking into the tree at two other birds. These birds could potentially be 'captive' birds that the hunters are using, but they are more likely to be either birds that they are wanting aquire for hunting, or prey that they want the hawks to hunt. A sparrowhawk will go for smaller birds such as thrushes, these birds seem a little on the large side for prey. But for a goshawk which will hunt larger prey, these birds may be more suitable.

The close proximity of the birds and men in the mosaic suggest that these could be trained or captive birds. It is common behaviour for hawks to "follow on" - to perch high up and then fly from tree to tree waiting appropriately for its prey. Is it possible that this behaviour being replicated in the image?

If we argue that the birds perched on the men are not hawks then what would they be? They do not resemble a fancy pet bird such as a parrot. And what would be the justification in the hunt scene for carrying such animals?

The men also seem to be carrying something that look like large scrolls. This is more likely to be rolled up nets suitable for flushing prey into.


The ‘Dove’ - Argos Mosaic, Villa of the Falconer
Another source of evidence comes from the Villa of the Falconer in Argos, which has been dated to the first half of the sixth century. There is a large collection of mosaics in the building but two in particular which stand out, decorating two sides of a peristyle opening into the main room.

The first is the mosaic of Months. The mosaic comprises of panels depicting various scenes with a figure for each Month (grouped in pairs with the Month’s names written beside them). The month that stands out is March, the warrior, who represents the god Mars. He interestingly encompasses a blend of eastern and western elements. This could reflect the influence of the eastern Germanic tribes, in particular the Vandals, which may have introduced falconry to the Romans.

The author (S.E. Iakovidis – Mycenae Epidaurus) describes the mosaic as following: “The mosaic of the Months. A Roman mosaic representing the months of March and April personified as men; March carries a small flag in his left hand and a dove in his right. A cauldron stands on the ground. April is shown holding a lamb.”

Looking closely at the ‘dove’ I feel it justified to question why it has been called a dove. Firstly look at the shape of the bird. The bird in the mosaic has long pointed wings; a dove’s wingspan is smaller and more rounded in flight. The body shape suggests a predatory bird such as a falcon.

The bird also suggests a pre-dive position, common in predator birds. Doves do not need to react like this as they are not predatory. There is a definite gap between man and bird. The man seems to be not carrying the bird but instead gesturing towards it whilst it is in flight.

But as this is to do with Gods, there cannot be certainty. We also have to be aware of the artistic licence and that the person creating the mosaic may have never seen a dove or bird of prey, or may just not be very good at depicting them.

The second mosaic in the villa (on the other side of the peristyle) is a lot more exciting. It contains panels with scenes of falconry and hare coursing.

The panel (the image on the right) is a perfect example of falconry. There is little doubt it could be anything else. Notice the glove worn on the falconer's left hand. You can also see the end of what could be a leash, part of the bird's furniture, hanging below the glove.

He also holds on to hunting dogs. We know a great deal about hunting dogs already, courtesy of Xenophon's writing. But it is great to see it in context.

Who ever was the owner of this villa, was very aware of the existance of falconry, and most likely partook in the art himself. It is certainly one of the clearest pieces of of evidence.



The Jordan Mosaics
Another very clear but also very confusing piece of evidence in a mosaic, dated 6th century, comes from Jordan. There is a clear image of a bearded falconer bearing a bird on his gloved hand. But what makes confusing is that the mosaic comes from the Hippolytus Hall. The mosaic shows characters from the myth of Hippolytus.

To the left of the ‘falconer’ is the word ΦΑΙΔΡΑ - this translates to Phaidra (more commonly known as Phaedra). She was the daughter of Minor and the wife of Theseus. In Greek mythology, Phaidra (more commonly known as Phaedra) was Phaidra fell in love with her stepson, Hippolytus. Being a devotee of the goddess Diana, Hippolytus was an enthusiastic hunter and a resolute virgin. He rejected her advances, and Phaidra killed herself in despair. First, though, she accused her beloved of rape, causing Theseus to seek his son's death.

Above the bird is the word ΠΡΟΠΟΑΟΙ - this translates to the word propoloi which means the priests/the temple servants (note it is plural). This could refer to the attendants of Hippolytus.

Looking at the mosaic, the bottom shows Phaedra standing with her female attendants (therapenai) and temple priests/servants. One has a bird. On the right is Hippolytus, although it appears the picture of him is now lost. Hippolytus was a devotee of the goddess Diana, so it could be a temple priest who is holding the bird, because the bird was sacred to the temple.

Or it is plausible the bird actually represents a god, as there are several of the graces and eros in the scene looking down from Olympus presumably on the human folly below. So the bird could represent Diana. Diana is known as the Huntress, the Mother of Animals and the Lady of Wild Creatures.

The scenes represented here are not necessarily realistic, and so we have to be careful when trying to conclude whether or not this means falconry was practiced. Although the bird could be the form of a god it does not necessarily mean that there is proof to say that people used them to hunt in that era in Rome or Greece. Although we do know its use was practiced in the East.



Pictish sculpture of a mounted falconer
Although it is hard to see, you can make out a man on a horse carrying a bird on his left arm. This is the cross-slab at Elgin Cathedral.

The cross-slab is dated to around AD 800. This suggests that the falconer imagery is one of the earliest examples of its kind.

The horseman carrys a hawk on his extended forearm and is accompanied by two hounds and another bird of prey. Below the horseman is a stag pursued by a hound and a second horseman. The two horsemen at the bottom of the slab are cut off where the slab meets the ground.

The value of birds in hunting

As an example of the value of birds and also the use of hunting with birds, Salic laws from the region of Clovis I, the first king of the Franks (509AD) say:

1. If anybody steals a hawk from a tree, and he is proved guilty, besides the return (of the object), and the informer’s fee, he shall be judged liable to the extent of 120 dinarii which makes up 3 solidi.

2. If anybody steals a hawk from a perch, let him be judged liable to the extent of 600 dinarii, which makes up 15 solidi.

3. If anybody steals a hawk from inside the household, and he be found guilty, let him be judged liable the extent of 1800 dinarii, which make up 45 solidi, besides the return (of the object) and the informer’s fee.

4. Add 1. If anybody steals a sparrow hawk let him be judged liable to the extent of 120 dinarii, which makes up 3 solidi, besides the return (of the object) and the informer’s fee.
(After Epstein 1943, 509)

This reflects the high value of hawks at that time, (although in this region they seem more established). The taking of a bird from someone pays a high price. Hawking seems well established in the Eastern cultures, and throughout much of Scandinavia and Bulgaria.

Equipment

I feel I should also mention equipment. Little has changed over time. After all why fix something that isn't broken. Equipment today differs slightly in the West and the East. But both have barely changed through time. Leathercraft is still a vital skill within falconry, and although some materials used have now changed, this is due to the safety and wellbeing of the raptors flown.

Progression

As time moves on past the post-Roman period, falconry really flourishes in Europe. The Saxons and Normans turn it into a sport of Kings. And falconry earns its place in society amongst all levels.

It is the recorded written and iconographic data from these periods (and onward) that help us to build a picture of how it was practiced. Many people believe that falconry was not was not practiced by the Romans. But as you have seen and read in this article there is a good selection of information to suggest otherwise. The majority may have not embraced it, but it was there, and it was growing. The previous barbaric links to Falconry were dwindling.

The Late Roman era was the beginning of a massive turning point - where hunting with birds, was beginning to develop into an artform. From the 6th Century it becomes not only about putting food on the table but also about status, wealth and power amongst the aristocracy. Eventually becoming one of the most popular Medieval field sports.

- Amy Wallace